Evaluation porsche 911 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Evaluation porsche 911 - Essay Example History Porsche has been a name that flashes as a synonym for amazing cars in the heart of almost all the automobile lovers in the world ever since it was founded in 1931. The brand name and the technology of the world’s most beautiful cars belong to the German Genius, Ferdinand Porsche. An originally motor designing company was transformed into a world class car manufacturer by the great vision of Ferdinand Porsche around the World War II. It was the time when the Volkswagen company had to displace Porsche for his English nativity following which he had to undergo a short-term imprisonment. This incident happened to a blessing in disguise as Ferdinand’s son, Ferry Porsche, took inspiration from his father’s skills and designed his own car which impressed the car lovers very soon. As described on its website, this car, fondly called 356 as its own design project number, changed the conservative approach to the car industry by promoting it as a field of perfect in novations for style and speed (‘Porsche: historical background’). This aerodynamic version with unprecedented power packing grabbed the attention of the world very rapidly and from then Porsche became an identity of luxury. The industrial history of Porsche can thus be ranged from 1948 till date with a number of car models and specifications of engines. An overall evaluation of the company’s profile indicates Porsches firmness in retaining its uniqueness in style and marketing. Porsche cars of different strength and enticing looks came flowing into the market over the years with the makers proving their innovation in the automobile engineering for sports utility vehicles (SUVs) as the company was incorporated to public sector in 1984, around twenty years after the introduction of Porsche 911 model. Porsche 911 A car model running a hit story for over three decades may be possible only with Porsche 911. Observers can find that the switching from its dependence on Volkswagen engines and the modification tag of Beetle brand eventually helped Porsche stand as a stalwart in the car designing field. The incredible power of its engine made it a hot choice for the racers and mountain terrain riders. Moreover, this model bears the credit for being the most sort after car with unchanged model name to capture the world market. Even when the competitors had claims that it had a wrong positioning of the engine, the 911 had the reputation for being the first sports car with a five speed transmission. The name was also a significant choice after the French Peugeot had their right reserved over the use of zero in the middle of any brand name. Thus the originally 901 became 911 when the company made commercial production of 1965 model cars. Porsche 911 design Ferdinand Alexander designed the world’s most iconic Porsche cars. The design of the Porsche 911 was introduced in the market with flying colors and this stunning design assisted this model to d ominate the auto market since its launching. The terrific design of the Porsche 911 benefited the company to win the award World’s Performance Car of the Year 2012. Today, many of the leading sports car makers try to adopt different design features of Porsche 911. The company’s philosophy has been giving particular attention to better design since its establishment. The firm’

La creatividad

La creatividad Introduccion La creatividad es la llave que abre la puerta del desarrollo individual y colectivo, razà ³n por la cual las naciones que han alcanzado un alto grado de desarrollo tecnolà ³gico, industrial, econà ³mico y social invierten grandes cantidades de recursos para mantenerse a la vanguardia, ya que innovar constantemente les asegura, no sà ³lo el bienestar de sus habitantes, sino incluso la supervivencia misma. Esta necesidad de ofrecer alternativas nuevas, viables y oportunas a las distintas problemà ¡ticas que plantea nuestra sociedad globalizada, nos motiva a enfocar nuestro interà ©s de estudio en la creatividad, desde la perspectiva del individuo creativo e innovador, pues es el sujeto, el principal protagonista de estos cambios, quien utiliza esta herramienta interna para aportar los elementos que promueven el avance y crecimiento. En este sentido, el presente trabajo de grado se propone â€Å"dibujar† el perfil psicolà ³gico de personas creativas en Repà ºblica Dominicana, a partir de la descripcià ³n de sus rasgos de personalidad. Igualmente nos esforzamos en entregar un perfil social, tomando como marco de referencia el universo relacional de los individuos estudiados: familiar, social, educativo y econà ³mico; con la finalidad de encontrar en estas perspectivas externas los elementos o situaciones que facilitaron la manifestacià ³n concreta de su actividad creativa, asà ­ como aquellas circunstancias que representaron importantes obstà ¡culos en la consecucià ³n de sus metas. Esta investigacià ³n es el primer estudio de este gà ©nero realizado en nuestro paà ­s, hecho que le reviste de gran importancia ya que las conclusiones arribadas aportarà ¡n valiosos beneficios en diferentes à ¡reas. Este estudio abarca diversas zonas de nuestra geografà ­a nacional, donde nuestros sujetos de investigacià ³n han expuesto parte de sus talentos. Mediante pruebas psicomà ©tricas realizamos la exploracià ³n caracterolà ³gica, mientras que el perfil contextual es abordado a travà ©s del uso de cuestionarios y entrevistas semi II estructuradas. Indagamos asà ­ el ambiente que fue capaz de impulsar, aunque no de propiciar, el genio creativo de estos ciudadanos como mecanismo de adaptacià ³n y supervivencia a sus propias carencias. Iniciamos esta propuesta investigativa definiendo el concepto creatividad y sus antecedentes, exponiendo las teorà ­as planteadas por diferentes personalidades del haber cientà ­fico; quienes, a pesar de estudiarla desde diferentes aristas, coinciden en afirman que la creatividad es una capacidad integral de todos los seres humanos, incluso hay quienes la califican como una â€Å"actitud personal†; este potencial lo que requiere es ser fertilizado, a fin de broten sus frutos en todos los à ³rdenes. En el capà ­tulo uno, definimos las personas creativas desde la à ³ptica de diversos investigadores, a partir de una serie de caracterà ­sticas cognoscitivas, afectivas y volitivas especà ­ficas que poseen. De igual modo las perfilamos mediante su auto descripcià ³n. Es de nuestro interà ©s abordar la motivacià ³n tanto intrà ­nseca como extrà ­nseca que impulsan sus proyectos creativos, pues estas personalidades sobresalen mà ¡s por su deseo de dejar huellas en el mundo que por su puro poder intelectual. Sin dejar de lado el aspecto de la inteligencia, ya que hay autores que incluso la desvinculan del proceso creativo.. En el capitulo dos nos ocupamos del contexto creativo tratando de exponer el papel que juega el proceso de socializacion en el desarrollo y expresià ³n de la capacidad creativa. Los estudios de casos realizados nos permiten concluir que las caracterà ­sticas que definen los sujetos estudiados son las siguientes†¦ III II. PLANTEAMIENTO DEL PROBLEMA II.1 ENUNCIACIÓN DEL PROBLEMA De los individuos creativos depende el desarrollo y sostenimiento del progreso humano, gracias a la incorporacià ³n de sus ideas originales, innovadoras y eficaces. Por lo tanto, es imprescindible detectar y cultivar las cualidades de personalidad que los caracterizan. De ahà ­ la relevancia que alcanza la presente investigacià ³n, pues entregamos un perfil psicolà ³gico y social de personas creativas en Repà ºblica Dominicana, estudio pionero en su gà ©nero. La creatividad es considerada un bien social, pues el avance de la sociedad dependerà ¡ cada vez mà ¡s de la inventiva y de la capacidad de las jà ³venes generaciones1. En los à ºltimos 50 aà ±os, ha sido estudiada por muchos autores como elemento componente de la personalidad (Guilford, 1960; Sternberg, 1988; Mitjà ¡ns, 1995; Csikszentmihalyi, 1998; Goà ±i, 2003). El procedimiento utilizado consiste en identificar las personas creadoras a partir de sus realizaciones o utilizando criterios de jueces, datos autobiogr à ¡ficos, etc. y estudiar, generalmente mediante tests, los rasgos de personalidad, buscando relaciones que evidencien cuà ¡les caracterizan a las personas creadoras y las distinguen de las no creadoras.2 Tradicionalmente las investigaciones han sido enfocadas en poblaciones especà ­ficas: cientà ­ficos y artistas de todo gà ©nero; llegando incluso a considerar la creatividad como una propiedad cuasi exclusiva de estos grupos; sin embargo hay autores que la plantean como un atributo comà ºn a todos los seres humanos, distinguiendola como ordinaria, cuando el individuo la utiliza en su cotidianidad para adaptarse al medio y sobrevivir, y grandiosa cuando es responsable de los logros y progresos de la sociedad humana.3 En un principio el estudio de la creatividad se limitaba al contexto individual, posteriormente se han tenido en consideracià ³n tambià ©n otros factores de carà ¡cter 1 Saturnino De la Torre. Persona y proceso creativos. Creativitat, comunicacià ³ i mercat, 2000. http://tdd.elisava.net/coleccià ³n/17/de-la-torre-es. 2 Albertina Mitjans. Creatividad, personalidad y educacià ³n. Cuba, Editorial Pueblo y Educacià ³n. 1995, p.3 3 Federico De Tavira. Introduccià ³n al Psicoanà ¡lisis del Arte. Sobre la Fecundidad Psà ­quica. Mà ©xico. Plaza y Valdà ©s Editores. 2007, p. 46 IV social, que forman parte del escenario en el que se desenvuelve el individuo: la familia, la red social, el ambiente cultural y educativo, los adelantos tecnolà ³gicos de la à ©poca, etc. Anne Roe, una de las pioneras de la psicologà ­a moderna, considera que a veces las instituciones culturales y el ambiente reprimen el potencial creativo en vez de estimularlo. â€Å"El problema no es sà ³lo encontrar la gente que de algà ºn modo han logrado oponerse a estas presiones, sino tambià ©n el encontrar formas de cambiar la cultura†.4 II.2 FORMULACIÓN DEL PROBLEMA Estos à ¡ngulos de acercamiento y comprensià ³n de la creatividad en la relacià ³n individuo-entorno, nos llevan a formular las siguientes preguntas:  ¿Cuà ¡les carà ¡cterà ­sticas de personalidad predominan en las personas creativas?  ¿Cuà ¡les rasgos de carà ¡cter comparten los individuos estudiados?  ¿Cà ³mo se definen asà ­ mismos los creativos? (autoconcepto)  ¿Cuà ¡les factores de carà ¡cter interno y/o externo lo motivan a crear?  ¿En quà © ambiente familiar se desarrollà ³ como individuo?  ¿Cuà ¡l es la red social que le ha servido de apoyo en sus proyectos?  ¿Cuà ¡l es el nivel de escolaridad alcanzado?  ¿Cuà ¡les circunstancias econà ³micas han sido predominantes a lo largo de su vida?  ¿Proporciona nuestra sociedad (Repà ºblica Dominicana) el ambiente propicio para el desarrollo y exposicià ³n del potencial creativo en sus ciudadanos? 4 Alexandra Goà ±i. Desarrollo de la creatividad. Costa Rica. Editorial Universidad Estatal a Distancia (UENED). 2003, p. 94. V III. JUSTIFICACIÓN Identificar y describir a las personas creativas a partir de sus rasgos de personalidad, asà ­ como la relacià ³n que ha tenido el contexto familiar, social, econà ³mico y educacional con la expresià ³n y realizacià ³n creativa de los mismos, constituye un campo de investigacià ³n hasta ahora no explorado en Repà ºblica Dominicana, de ahà ­ se desprende la relevancia de este estudio, resultando à ©ste el primer abordaje de esta temà ¡tica en nuestro paà ­s. Las conclusiones arribadas reportan importantes beneficios en los siguientes tà ©rminos: Psicolà ³gicos: proporcionan un inventario caracterolà ³gico de los sujetos creativos estudiados, el cual se podrà ¡ utilizar para futuras investiga- ciones que amplà ­en el espectro de estudio de la creatividad y la influencia del ambiente en la produccià ³n creativa. De igual modo, motiva a los estudiosos del comportamiento a fijar su interà ©s en las potencialidades humanas, cà ³mo descubrirlas y fomentarlas, mà ¡s que en las patologà ­as manifiestas en la conducta. Educativos: el manejo de esta informacià ³n nos permite rediseà ±ar la enseà ±anza, a fin de que à ©sta promueva y fomente dichas cualidades de personalidad en las futuras generaciones. Gracias a esta reorientacià ³n podremos contar con individuos capaces de generar nuevas propuestas y de producir los cambios que necesita nuestra sociedad para asegurar la ruta hacia el desarrollo sostenido, rompiendo el esquema de que los estudiantes sean simples acumuladores y repetidores de informacià ³n que otros han aportado. Esta revolucià ³n educativa convertirà ¡ los salones de clase en verdaderos centros de formacià ³n de là ­deres emprendedores, al permitirseles la expresià ³n de su libre pensamiento y la concrecià ³n de sus ideas. VI Sociales: evaluar el contexto familiar, social y econà ³mico nos permite inferir cuà ¡les circunstancias externas han sido proveedoras de està ­mulos y cuà ¡les han sido inhibidoras del talento creativo. Este es uno de los aspectos mà ¡s importartes a considerar, ya que el individuo, como ente biopsicosocial, trae una dotacià ³n biolà ³gica que le antepone y supone la expresià ³n de sus cualidades, sin embargo no escapa a la externalidad: es en el ambiente que lo circunda donde ha de expresar estas virtudes, siempre y cuando este entorno le sea favorable. Es una constante en esta investigacià ³n la reflexià ³n respecto a este punto. Culturales: Aunque somos considerados paà ­s â€Å"tercermundista†, pueblo en và ­a de un desarrollo que no acabamos de alcanzar, en nuestro territorio se han formado y expresado indviduos con alta capacidad creativa, aà ºn cuando las circunstancias les han sido adversas. Este ejemplo, enseà ±a a la presente y futura generacià ³n a cultivar l a autoconfianza y trascender las limitaciones que impone el espacio que nos rodea. Promovemos asà ­ la cultura de la autodeterminacià ³n de nuestra nacià ³n. Empresariales. En este à ¡mbito, el perfil caracterolà ³gico del creativo ayuda a identificar aquellos individuos con iniciativa, inventiva, capaces de generar las ideas innovadoras a mayor ritmo, asegurando el progreso y el desarrollo en tà ©rminos productivos. Incluso hay sociedades, como la japonesa, donde ser creativos es una verdadera obligacià ³n del empleado. Esta investigacià ³n es viable pues se dispone de los recursos necesarios para su realizacià ³n. VII IV. ALCANCE Y Là MITES DE LA INVESTIGACIÓN Este estudio de caso se llevarà ¡ a cabo durante los meses agosto-octubre del aà ±o 2009; està ¡ limitado a estudiar seis personas dedicadas a diversas actividades, con diferentes niveles educativos, cuyas edades oscilan entre los 20 y 55 aà ±os de edad, las cuales està ¡n ubicadas en diversas localidades de nuestro paà ­s (Repà ºblica Dominicana). VIII V. OBJETIVOS V.1 GENERAL Describir el perfil psicosocial de personas creativas en Repà ºblica Dominicana, dedicadas a diversas ramas tà ©cnicas y artisticas, cuyas edades oscilas entre 20 y 55 aà ±os de edad. V.2 ESPECà FICOS Identificar los rasgos de personalidad de estas personas creativas Establecer un perfil caracterolà ³gico del creativo Exponer cà ³mo se describen a sà ­ mismos (autoconcepto) Establecer la relacià ³n del entorno social y familiar en el desarrollo y expresià ³n del talento creativo de estos personajes Exponer la formacià ³n acadà ©mica de los casos estudiados Identificar las circusntancias econà ³mica en las cuales se han desenvuelto Investigar las motivaciones intrà ­nsecas y extrà ­nsecas de sus creaciones IX VI. METODOLOGà A VI.1 TIPO DE INVESTIGACIÓN La presente investigacià ³n se define como un estudio de caso, enmarcado en el enfoque cualitativo, fundamentado en una perspectiva interpretativa de los datos recolectados. VI.2 TIPO DE ESTUDIO Realizamos un estudio descriptivo, debido a que nuestro objetivo principal es describir al individuo a partir de sus rasgos de personalidad, haciendo à ©nfasis en comprender la relacià ³n de su expresià ³n creativa con el ambiente que lo circunda, ya sea en tà ©rminos familiares, sociales, educacionales y econà ³micos. Es asà ­ mismo un estudio exploratorio, ya que esta temà ¡tica es planteada por vez primera en nuestro paà ­s como objeto de investigacià ³n, constituyà ©ndose asà ­ en un punto de partida para estudios posteriores. VI.3 MUESTRA La muestra estuvo conformada por seis personas, cuatro hombres y dos mujeres, dedicadas a distintas ramas u oficios, con diferentes niveles educativos, cuyas edades oscilan entre 20 y 50 aà ±os de edad. El criterio de seleccià ³n està ¡ basado en el conocimiento previo del aporte realizado y desarrollado por las personas en cuestià ³n. Los mismos està ¡n localizados en diferentes ciudades de nuestro paà ­s. (Aà ±adir el carà ¡cter sujetivo de la seleccià ³n, explicar esto.) X VI.4 TÉCNICA DE RECOLECCIÓN DE DATOS Para el logro del objetivo se utilizaron los siguientes instrumentos: a. El Test de 16 Factores de Personalidad de Raymond B. Catell (16 FP de Catell), el cual se basa en el anà ¡lisis factorial y mide 16 dimensiones de la personalidad. Cada uno de los factores posee un significado psicolà ³gico segà ºn el cual ha de interpretarse la calificacià ³n obtenida por el sujeto para su perfil de personalidad. b. Entrevistas semi-estructuradas mediante las cuales exploramos la relacià ³n persona-ambiente en sus diferentes vertientes: social, familiar, econà ³mica y educativa. VI.5 MEDIOS Y FUENTES DE INVESTIGACIÓN 1. Libros 2. Revistas electrà ³nicas 3. Internet 4. Perià ³dicos 5. Entrevistas XI VII. MARCO TEÓRICO La creatividad es la habilidad para dar existencia a algo. Francis Barron VII.1 ANTECEDENTES HISTÓRICOS DE LA INVESTIGACIÓN VII.1.1 LA CREATIVIDAD La creatividad està ¡ vinculada a todos los aspectos de la vida psicolà ³gica y social, cuyo abordaje requiere un tratamiento interdisciplinario. Es el tema central de investigacià ³n de cientà ­ficos, psicà ³logos, educadores, filà ³sofos, etc., ya que representa el factor competitivo mà ¡s determinante y sustentador de los grandes cambios que experimenta la sociedad del siglo XXI. VII.1.1.1 Definicià ³n Creatividad significa crear; implica dar vida o sentido a algo nuevo, construir, hacer crecer (en latà ­n crescere), desarrollar, aportar un sentido diferente en la solucià ³n de problemas, orientado a satisfacer los requerimientos de la sociedad en tà ©rminos constructivos. La creatividad no es sà ³lo un proceso personal de satisfaccià ³n de necesidades, sino tiene una dimensià ³n social, pues es en el contexto externo donde ha de tener repercusià ³n el resultado del proceso creativo: el producto creado. VII.1.1.2 Antecedes histà ³ricos del tà ©rmino En 1971 la Real Academia de la Lengua discutià ³ acerca de la incorporacià ³n de la palabra creatividad al diccionario de la lengua espaà ±ola, pues consideraban XII injustificable la utilizacià ³n de un anglicismo (â€Å"creativity†) cuyo significado, a juicio de los acadà ©micos de la à ©poca, era ambiguo y polisà ©mico, argumentando ademà ¡s que existà ­an otras palabras que tenà ­an significados similares. Esta anà ©cdota de carà ¡cter histà ³rico nos muestra el vertiginoso crecimiento que ha tenido un concepto que en sà ³lo tres dà ©cadas se ha transformado en una herramienta inseparable del desarrollo y de la actividad cientà ­fica, tecnolà ³gica, cultural y educativa de nuestros pueblos.5 El reconocimiento del tà ©rmino creatividad, como elemento activo en todo ser humano, ha recorrido un largo camino, en el que podemos seà ±alar las siguientes etapas: Edad Antigua: el artista no crea, sino que se limitaba a imitar la realidad; Edad Media y la Moderna Cristiana: el acto de crear era solamente atribuible a Dios. Siglo XIX: el tà ©rmino creador es sinà ³nimo de artista. 1950: este aà ±o marca el inicio de la investigacià ³n cientà ­fica de la creatividad como una capacidad intrà ­nseca humana. En esta à ºltima etapa se destaca el psicà ³logo Joy Paul Guilford, quien incorpora el tà ©rmino creatividad al vocabulario habitual de la psicologà ­a al pronunciar su conferencia Creativity ante la American Psychological Association en 1950, marcando con este hecho un antes y un despuà ©s en la investigacià ³n cientà ­fica sobre esta cuestià ³n. Aunque regularmente se considera a Francis Galton (1869), con su obra Hereditary genius, como el punto de partida al plantear el tema del carà ¡cter hereditario de los genios y creadores. Fue el primero en ocuparse de estudiar la personalidad creadora mediante un mà ©todo cientà ­fico, aunque hoy dà ­a no son sostenibles sus conclusiones. VII.1.1.3 Conceptos afines A partir del famoso discurso que pronunciara Guilford en 1950, comienza a relacionarse la creatividad con conceptos como la fluidez, la flexibilidad, la 5 Hugo Cerda. La creatividad en la ciencia y en la educacià ³n. Colombia. Edit. Magisterio. 2006, p.13 originalidad y el pensamiento divergente, pues anterior a ese momento histà ³rico se estudiaba bajo el tà ­tulo de imaginacià ³n, invencià ³n, ingenio, nià ±os dotados y superdotados o en su defecto se le consideraba un signo distintivo de la inteligencia general.6 De acuerdo a Guilford â€Å"los individuos muy creativos pueden generar ideas a un ritmo rà ¡pido (fluidez), romper lo establecido a fin de atacar los problemas desde una perspectiva nueva (flexibilidad) y generar ideas nuevas y genuinamente diferentes (originalidad)†7. OTRAS FUENTES REVISTAS ELECTRONICAS Altuve, Ubaldina. Educacià ³n y desarrollo de la creatividad. CONHISREMI, Revista Universitaria de Investigacià ³n y Dià ¡logo Acadà ©mico, Vol. 5, No. 1, 2009. http://www.iuttol.com.ve/varios/nuevos_articulos/ARTICULO_UAltuve.pdf. Consultado el 14/07/09 Chacà ³n, Yamileth. Una revisià ³n crà ­tica del concepto de creatividad. Revista Electrà ³nica â€Å"Actualidades Investigativas de Educacià ³n. Volumen 5, Nà ºmero 1. Aà ±o 2005. http://revista.inie.ucr.ac.cr/articulos/1-2005/articulos/creatividad.pdf. Esquivias Serrano, Marà ­a Teresa (2004). Creatividad: definiciones, antecedentes y aportaciones. Revista Digital Universitaria. 31 de enero de 2004. Volumen 5, nà ºmero 1. ISSN:1067-6079. http://www.revista.unam.mx/vol.5/num1/art4/portada.htm# Consultado 25/06/09 Getzels, Jacob M.; Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly. Encontrar problemas y creatividad. Revista electrà ³nica Estudios de Psicologà ­a, ISSN 0210-9395, N º 18, 1984 , pags. 69-80. http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=65910. Consultado el 02/07/09 Graà ±a, Nelly. La creatividad en la escuela. Aula, Montevideo, 2003. http://www.geocities.com/aulauy/creatividad.htm Consultado el 02/07/09 4 Martà ­nez-Otero, V. (2005). Rumbos y desafà ­os en Psicopedagogà ­a de la Creatividad. Revista Complutense de Educacià ³n, Vol. 16 Nà ºm. 1 (2005) 169 181, ISSN 1130-2496 http://revistas.ucm.es/edu/11302496/articulos/RCED0505120169A.PDF Mitjans martinez, Albertina.  ¿Como evaluar la creatividad?. Rev. cuba. psicol. [online]. 1993, vol.10, no.2-3, p.104-121. http://pepsic.bvspsi. org.br/scielo.php?script= sci_arttextpid=S0257- 43221993000200003lng=ptnrm=iso. ISSN 0257-4322. Consultado 02/07/09. Penagos, Julio Cà ©sar; Aluni, Rafael. Creatividad, una aproximacià ³n. Revista Psicologà ­a (online). Ed. Especial aà ±o 2000. http://homepage.mac.com/penagoscorzo/creatividad_2000/creatividad6.html Consultado 02/07/09. Sà ¡nchez Manzano, Esteban. Imaginacià ³n creativa y personalidad: estudio experimental sobre las relaciones de la creatividad y la introversià ³nextraversià ³n. Revista Complutense de Educacià ³n Vol. 1 (1)- 121-135. Edil. Univ. Complutense. Madrid. 1990. http://revistas.ucm.es/edu/11302496/articulos/RCED9090130121A.PDF. Consultado 02/07/09. Sternberg, R.; OHara, Linda. Creatividad e Inteligencia. Cuadernos de Informacià ³n y Comunicacià ³n. 2005. revistas.ucm.es/inf/11357991/articulos/CIYC0505110113A.PDF. Consultado el 05/08/09 Velasco Tapia, Lucà ­a. Desarrollo del Pensamiento Creativo. Universidad de Londres. Papeles del Psicà ³logo, 2006. Vol. 27(1), pp. 3-8. Enero-abril, 2006. http://www.cop.es/papeles. consultado el 12/05/09 Velasco Barvieri, Patricia. Psicologà ­a y Creatividad: Una revisià ³n histà ³rica. (Desde los autorretratos de los genior del siglo XIX hasta las teorà ­as implà ­citas del siglo XX). http://books.google.com/books?id=rDfiEDyWjAYCpg=PA60dq=teoria+gestaltica+ de+la+creatividadei=dQhoSoKSOovgyQSx37i0BAclient=safari. Consultado el 14/07/09 Ziegler, M. (2000). Creatividad, aula y arte. Revista de Educacià ³n, 15. http://educar.jalisco.gob.mx/15/15Ziegle.html, Consultado 27/06/09 5 INTERNET Breve Historia de La Creatividad. http://www.scribd.com/doc/14237127/Breve- Historia-de-La-Creatividad, Consultado 10/05/09 Castillo Balcazar, Dania R. Creatividad y uso de desechos como material educativo en la educacià ³n universitaria. Lima, Perà º 2007. http://www.cybertesis.edu.pe/sisbib/2007/castillo_bd/pdf/castillo_bd.pdf Consultado el 11/07/09 De la Torre, Saturnino. Persona y proceso creativos. Creativitat, comunicacià ³ i mercat, 2000. http://tdd.elisava.net/coleccià ³n/17/de-la-torre-es. Consultado el 29/06/09 Garcà ­a Tenorio, Marà ­a Josà ©. Definicià ³n empà ­rica de los factores de fluidez ideativa, originalidad y creatividad: relaciones con la personalidad. http://www.ucm.es/BUCM/tesis/psi/ucm-t25704.pdf. Madrid, 2002. Consultado 10/05/09 Gardner, Howard. Un retrato del creador Ideal. Revista Psicologà ­a (online). Edicià ³n Especial aà ±o 2000. http://homepage.mac.com/penagoscorzo/creatividad_2000/creatividad3.html. Consultado 02/07/09. http://apuntes.rincondelvago.com/psicologia-de-la-creatividad.html. Consultado 02/07/09. http://ineedfile.com/download_file_i.php?qq=psicologiafile=2010997desc=Aprendi zaje+Y+Creatividad+-+Psicologia+Cognitiva+.doc Huidobro Salas, Teresa. Una definicià ³n de la creatividad a travà ©s del estudio de 24 autores seleccionados. Universidad complutense de Madrid. Facultad de psicologà ­a. http://www.ucm.es/BUCM/tesis/psi/ucm-t25705.pdf. Madrid, 2002. Consultado 10/05/09 Là ³pez Pà ©rez, Ricardo. Diccionario de Creatividad. Conceptos y Expresiones Habituales de los Estudios sobre Creatividad. http://www.scribd.com/doc/6733423/Diccionario-de-Creatividad. Consultado 10/05/09 Là ³pez Pà ©rez, Ricardo. Prontuario de la Creatividad. http://www.scribd.com/doc/6562037/Prontuario-de-La-Creatividad. Consultado 10/05/09 Quià ±ones Rodrà ­guez, Maria Aracelly. Creatividad y resiliencia. Anà ¡lisis de 13 casos colombianos. Universidad Autà ³noma de Madrid. Madrid, 2006. Consultado 10/05/09. http://digitool-uam.greendata.es:1801/view/action/singleViewer.do? dvs=1242032832751~67locale=es_DOframeId=1usePid1=trueusePid2=true Rogers, Carl R. Hacia una teorà ­a de la creatividad. UNIDAD 3 Teorà ­as del proceso creativo. http://www.angelfire.com/ego/cedelacultura/unidad3.htm. Consultado el 15/05/09 Rom Rodrà ­guez, Josep; Sabatà © Là ³pez, Joan. La creatividad antes de Guilford. Universitat Ramon Llull. http://congressos.blanquerna.url.edu/spucp/Pdfs/Rom_MaqCong05.pdf. Consultado el 04/06/09 Yentzen, Eduardo Teorà ­a General de la Creatividad. http://www.scribd.com/doc/6952795/Yentzen-Eduardo-Teoria-General-de-la- Creatividad, Consultado 10/05/09 www.gestiopolis.com/canales8/rrhh/psicometria-como-ciencia-del-comportamientoy- los-recursos-humanos.htm DICCIONARIO Diccionario de la Real Academia Espaà ±ola (Online). Vigà ©sima segunda edicià ³n http://www.rae.es/rae.html ENTREVISTA Entrevista a Robert Sternberg realizada por Eduardo Punset. http://www.rtve.es/tve/b/redes/anteriores.htm 1 Robert Sternberg. Inteligencia creativa. http://www.rtve.es/tve/b/redes2007/semanal/prg217/frcontenido.htm

Hobbes, Conatus and the Prisoners Dilemma :: Philosophy Essays

Hobbes, Conatus and the Prisoner's Dilemma ABSTRACT: I want to show the importance of the notion of conatus (endeavor) for Hobbes' political philosophy. According to Hobbes, all motion of bodies consists of elementary motions he called 'endeavors.' They are motions 'made in less space and time than can be given,' and they obey the law of persistence or inertia. A body strives to preserve its state and resist the causal power of other bodies. I call this the conatus-principle. Hobbes' argument for social contract and sovereign is based essentially on this model. He proves that the natural conatus makes people (i) strive to preserve their lives and therefore to get out of the destructive state of nature; (ii) commit to mutual contracts; (iii) keep the contracts unless some external cause otherwise determines; and (iv) establish a permanent sovereign power that Hobbes calls 'an artificial eternity of life.' All this is determined by the fundamental laws of nature, essentially, by the conatus-principle. I also show that the Priso ner's Dilemma interpretation of the Hobbesian state of nature does not represent all of the essential features of Hobbes' argument. I. Conatus and Motion Philosophers in the 17th century made hard efforts to explain the beginning and continuation of the motion of bodies. The notion of conatus ('striving' or 'endeavoring') was commonly used in the explanations. It refers to the power with which the motion of a body begins and is kept on. What is this power? Descartes explained it to be an active power or tendency of bodies to move, expressing the power of God. He distinguished between motion and the tendency to move, but Hobbes was anxious to argue that conatus actually is motion. In The Elements of Law he says it to be the "internal beginning of animal motion" (EL I.7.2), and in his later writings the notion of 'endeavor' refers to the beginning or first part of any kind of motion. Because motion is for Hobbes "a continual relinquishing of one place, and acquiring of another" (De Corp II.8.10), the beginning of a motion of a body must be an infinitely small change in the place of the body. Accordingly, Hobbes defines endeavor "to be motion made in less space and time than can be given; ... that is, motion made through the length of a point, and in an instant or point of time" (De Corp III.15.2). For Hobbes, the conatus is not an inherent power of a body but is determined by the motions of other bodies.

The possible approaches towards differentiated eLearning

Differentiated direction ( or differentiated acquisition ) involves supplying pupils with different avenues to geting content ; to processing, building, or doing sense of thoughts ; and to developing learning stuffs so that all pupils within a schoolroom can larn efficaciously, irrespective of differences in ability. Research indicates that many of the emotional or societal troubles gifted pupils experience disappear when their educational climes are adapted to their degree and gait of acquisition. † Differentiation in instruction can besides include how a pupil shows that they have command of a construct. This could be through a research paper, function drama, podcast, diagram, posting, etc. The key is happening how your pupils learn and displays their acquisition that meets their specific demands. Differentiation normally includes one or more of the undermentioned countries:A. Content– Is â€Å" what † pupils learn – Includes curriculum subjects or constructs – Reflects province or national criterions – Presents indispensable facts and accomplishments – Differentiates by pre-assessing pupil accomplishments and apprehensions, so fiting scholars with appropriate activities – Provides pupils with picks in order to add deepness to larning – Provides pupils with extra resources that match their degrees of understandingB. Procedure– Is â€Å" how † pupils learn – Refers to how pupils make sense or understand the information, thoughts, and accomplishments being studied – Reflects pupil larning manners and penchants – Varies the acquisition procedure depending upon how pupils learnC. Product– Is the terminal consequence of pupil acquisition – Tends to be touchable: studies, trials, booklets, addresss, skits – Reflects pupil understanding – Differentiates by supplying challenge, assortment, and pickWhat is distinction direction?In this context when distinction is discussed, it is non about merchandise distinction by larning bringing location, as in intercrossed eLearning content compared to to the full online classs and/or cyberschools ( National Leadership Institute, 2005 ) . Nor is it about distinction in clip, as in synchronal and asynchronous acquisition. Rather, in e-diff, one of three types of accommodation is normally involved ( Hall, 2002 ; Reis et al. , 1988 ; Sizer, 2001 ; Tomlinson, 2001 ; Tomlinson & A ; Allan, 2000 ; Tomlinson & A ; McTighe, 2006 ; Willis & A ; Mann, 2000 ) : 1. Differentiation of content – Offer pupils the opportunity to get down at different topographic points in the course of study and/or proceed at different gaits. 2. Differentiation of larning manner attack – Stressing many modes of larning manner or larning penchant, such as ocular and audile scholars. 3. Differentiation of merchandise – Giving different assignments to different pupils, and turn in different work merchandises.III. DIFFERENTIATION INeLEARNINGTechnology to do content alteration on the fly is rather simple online. It can be every bit straightforward as hypertext markup language cryptography and back-end databases. The challenge is non in the bringing engineering itself, but in set uping good logic for distinction – if we are traveling to distinguish, how do we make up one's mind who gets what? Here we organize the most common e-diff schemes, based on what type of decision-making procedure and grounds is used to set up the accommodation picks. Approachs can besides be combined, or blended, in eLearning merchandises. Some of the possible general attacks are: â€Å" Diffuse † attacks to distinction, in which pupils receive the same content but have multiple chances for acquisition and are provided with different attacks for doing sense of thoughts planfully â€Å" diffused † throughout the content. Autonomous attacks, in which pupils receive different content by a mechanism of self-selection built in the content. This introduces distinction through pupil pick. Naive distinction, in which the computing machine is finding the class of distinction, non the user, no specific program or overall scheme is in topographic point in the eLearning content for why distinction is go oning, or what it is intended to intend in the acquisition context. Boolean distinction, in which package uses types of Boolean logic, such as rule-based models or determination trees, to find how to set content for different pupils. Model-based distinction, in which adept sentiment is combined with a assortment of informations mining techniques to bring forth thoughts for how content might be suitably differentiated. Language based distinction, in which the pupils from different cultural backgrounds can be benefitted. This is based on the distinction in the contents of stuffs to be delivered.Differences in the attacks1.In diffuse distinction, there is no direct purpose to measure or fit the demands of single users, or to custom-make content or feedback, as all pupils receive the same content. But adequate assortment and different beginnings of stimulation are provided to involvement and prosecute diverse audiences. This is a really common attack to differentiated direction in a traditional schoolroom learning puting. The hope is that with adequate assortment provided, everyone ‘s demands can be addressed. 2.The 2nd scheme, self distinction, allows pupils to choose their personal picks as they work their manner through on-line content. This can dwell of merely choosing the order of completion among a fixed bill of fare of larning activities or faculties, or can let much more scope of pick. The courseware design determines where pick points are. Self distinction is besides really common in on-line content. 3.NaA?ve distinction comes about about unwittingly in many eLearning merchandises. It involves altering parts of content in a more random manner, non based on the specific demands of single pupils, but merely revolving content and artworks so that screens have different images, representations and so forth each clip viewed. This might affect a randomizing factor or a shuffle map. Though diffuse and autonomous schemes can be rather consistent with improved larning aims of differentiated direction, it can be harder to do the instance for naA?ve distinction. Additions in motive and battle as acquisition shows change, for case, are difficult to reason for if the same pupil merely sees one of the shows. 4.The following scheme, Boolean distinction, uses assessment grounds to alter the flow of content for different pupils. Boolean here merely describes logic that computing machines use to find if a statement is true of false. Main Boolean operators include â€Å" and, † â€Å" non † and â€Å" or. † Operators get used with a series of regulations to depict what happens with the content as pupils make their responses. There are many differentiations among different rule-based methods, including assorted be aftering agents, bug bases and chaining algorithms. But the thought is that a set of regulations have been devised, frequently by really carefully analyzing many pupils. These rule-based boolean methods make up some of the oldest signifiers of e-diff. The simplest types look like a checklist of larning aims. Students go down the list and finish the aims. If they successfully complete 1 AND 2, they go onto 3, for case. But 1 and NOT 2 and possibly the pupil is redirected to 2A, or given some extra feedback or other larning intercession that go throughing pupils do n't acquire. Rule based methods can take much more luxuriant signifiers, and have been in really powdered ways to depict the battalion of constructs and misconceptions pupils hold in certain capable affair countries, and what to make about them. 5.The following signifier of e-diff, model-based, is really a big household of attacks that will be grouped together here for the interest of treatment. Some of the attacks are among the newer e-diff signifiers and others have been around for some clip. Most use some signifier of adept sentiment, including from instructors and other capable affair experts, combined with informations mining to bring forth thoughts about how content might be differentiated. Common data excavation techniques include a assortment of arrested development and Gaussian statistical theoretical accounts, Bayesian webs, nervous webs, point response theoretical accounts, and assorted method attacks that combine quantitative and qualitative informations to do interpretative or productive anticipations. 6.The concluding signifier of e-diff is, language-based in which the same contents are provided to the pupils in different possible linguistic communications of apprehension. On the plus side, information excavation attacks can be faster and easier than deducing complex rule-based signifiers. Besides they can let anticipations to be compared to existent pupil larning informations to ticket melody theoretical accounts. However, the inquiry frequently is which theoretical account to utilize, and why. Besides important in the instance of eLearning is whether the theoretical account truly is making an appropriate occupation of stating you something about pupils.III.CONCLUSIONDevelopers are constructing more distinction into eLearning merchandises, admiting that people have multiple waies for acquisition and for doing sense of thoughts. But distinction via engineering is complex. There are legion attacks that have rather different executions and consequences, as can be seen by the general schemes described here. As the field matures and developers explore more ways to distinguish online, it is of import that non-disclosure understandings and other rational bel ongings issues do n't close down the conversation about what these merchandises are making, and how they are making it. So, certain, allow ‘s all be different – but allow ‘s happen some common land to speak about these of import attacks to differentiation online.IV.REFERENCES[ I ] Hall, T. ( 2002 ) . Differentiated direction. Retrieved November, 2006, from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.cast.org/publications/ncac/ncac_diffinstruc.html [ II ] Parshall, C. G. , Stewart, R. , Ritter, J. ( 1996, April ) . Inventions: Sound, Graphics, and Alternative Response Modes. Paper presented at the National Council on Measurement in Education, New York. [ III ] Reis, S. M. , Kaplan, S. N. , Tomlinson, C. A. , Westbert, K. L. , Callahan, C. M. , & A ; Cooper, C. R. ( 1988 ) . How the encephalon learns, A response: Equal does non intend indistinguishable. Educational Leadership, 56 ( 3 ) . [ IV ] Tomlinson, C. A. ( 2001 ) . How to distinguish direction in mixed-ability schoolrooms ( 2nd ed. ) . Alexandria, VA: ASCD. [ V ] Tomlinson, C. A. , & A ; Allan, S. D. ( 2000 ) . Leadership for distinguishing schools and schoolrooms. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. [ VI ] Tomlinson, C. A. , & A ; McTighe, J. ( 2006 ) . Integrating Differentiated Instruction +Understanding by Design: Connecting Content and Kids. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. [ VII ] Turker, A. , Gorgun, I. , & A ; Conlan, O. ( 2006 ) . The Challenge of Content Creation to Facilitate Personalized E-Learning Experiences. International Journal on ELearning, 5 ( 1 ) , 11-17.

Battle Cry of Freedom

United States History i| Battle Cry of Freedom| The Civil War Era by: James M. McPherson| | Sandra Dunlap| 4/16/2010| James M. McPherson was born October 11, 1936. He is considered to be an American Civil War historian and he is a professor at Princeton University. He received the Pulitzer Prize for his book Battle Cry of Freedom and Wikipedia states this was his most famous book. He holds a Bachelor of Arts and a Ph. D. and teaches United States History at Princeton University. Battle Cry of Freedom; The Civil War Era id a work of such vast scope necessarily emphasizes synthesis at the expense of theme. If there is a unifying idea in the book, it is McPherson's acknowledged emphasis on â€Å"the multiple meanings of slavery and freedom, and how they dissolved and reformed into new patterns in the crucible of war. † In spite of the existence of a growing class of urban workers and a burgeoning immigrant population, McPherson finds that â€Å"the greatest danger to American su rvival midcentury was neither class tension nor ethnic division.I feel it was sectional conflict between North and South over the future of slavery. † He dismisses the idea advanced by some historians that conflicts over tariff policy and states’ rights were more central to the political tensions of the 1850's than the South's â€Å"peculiar institution. † McPherson emphasizes that â€Å"by the 1850s Americans on both sides of the line separating freedom from slavery came to emphasize more their differences than similarities. McPherson is critical of previous literature that he says â€Å"lack the dimension of contingency-the recognition that at numerous critical points during the war things might have gone altogether differently† (857-858). The narrative style allows him to point out such critical moments that others would have missed or looked over. He carefully identifies instances where another outcome was possible, or even probable. His treatment of both sides in the war is evenhanded.The Compromise of 1850 was an attempt to brace a government ready to split apart with a few political two-by-fours: It gave the South a deferred decision on the question of slavery in New Mexico and Utah in return for a stronger fugitive slave law and the admission of California to the union as a free state. Four years later, the Kansas-Nebraska Act shattered this uneasy peace by repealing the Missouri Compromise line of 1820, which had banned slavery in the northern territories, and substituting the deliberately ambiguous doctrine of popular sovereignty, which left room for violent disagreement among the territorial settlers.The Kansas-Nebraska Act completed the destruction of the divided Whig Party and gave rise to the new, entirely Northern, Republican Party, whose stated objective was to prevent the spread of slavery. Although not all Republicans were motivated by sympathy for the Negro—indeed many were deeply antipathetic toward blacks and opposed slavery only in the economic interest of working-class whites—and although the party was pledged not to disturb slavery where it already existed, Southerners regarded it as a threat.The election of Republican Abraham Lincoln in the â€Å"revolution of 1860† precipitated the â€Å"counterrevolution of 1861,† the secession of the lower South and, after the firing of shots at Fort Sumter, of the upper South as well. In stressing the formation of the Confederacy as a â€Å"preemptive counterrevolution,† McPherson follows the model of historian Arno Meyer, who applied it to twentieth century Europe.Such a counterrevolution does not attempt to restore the old orders; it strikes first—preempts revolution—in order to protect the status quo before revolution can erupt. The secessionists magnified the potential threat posed by Lincoln's election, arguing that waiting for an â€Å"overt act† against Southern rights was comparable to waiting for a coiled rattlesnake to strike. The time to act was before the North decided to move against slavery, as the Southern radicals believed the â€Å"Black Republicans† ultimately would.McPherson's other important theme is that the Civil War was a political war, fought by citizens rather than by professional armies; as a consequence, political leadership and public opinion directly affected military strategy, and events on the battlefield reverberated on the home front and especially in Washington, D. C. For this reason he chose a narrative rather than a thematic format, integrating political and military events to emphasize complex patterns of cause and effect. Thus, he emphasizes that the failure of the Army of the Potomac to reach Richmond during the Seven Days’ Battle in the spring of 1862 changed Union policy rom the limited goal of restoring the Union into one of total war to destroy the Old South and consequently gave rise to the Copperhead faction of a ntiwar Democrats in the North. Antietam was a major turning point not only because Lee's Army of Northern Virginia was driven back across the Potomac, but also because it ended Confederate hopes for European recognition and military assistance, and gave Lincoln the military victory he had been waiting for as a backdrop for his Emancipation Proclamation.Especially in the North, where the two-party system still operated and the Republican position on slavery was still evolving and far from unified, Union military success or failure had far-reaching effects. The defeats at Bull Run and Ball's Bluff led Congress to establish the Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, and the Union failure at Fredericksburg gave Secretary of the Treasury Salmon P. Chase, who aspired to replace Lincoln as the Republican nominee in 1864, an opportunity to encourage a senatorial investigation of the cabinet.Public morale in the North rose after the victory at Stones River and temporarily blunted the Cop perhead offensive against Lincoln's war policy; it plummeted again after the Confederate triumph at Chancellorsville on May 2-3, 1863, and Lincoln exclaimed in despair: â€Å"My God! my God! What will the country say? † McPherson gives military outcomes the central place in his explanation of Northern victory and Southern defeat; he is critical of theories that undervalue events on the battlefield.In his concluding chapter he reviews the various explanations that historians have advanced for the South's ultimate defeat, analyzing the weaknesses in each. Although the North was superior in manpower by two to one and had even greater economic resources, revisionist historians have denied that the South fought against odds so great as to make defeat inevitable; they have pointed out the number of small countries that won independence against even greater odds, not the least of which was colonial America against Great Britain.Such historians have argued instead that internal divis ions—the states’ rights governors who refused to cooperate with the central government, the disaffection of non-slaveholders, libertarian resentment of conscription and the restriction of civil liberties—fatally weakened the South's morale and destroyed its will to fight. McPherson discounts this argument, as well as the alternative interpretation that stresses the gradual development of superior Northern ilitary and political leadership that was evident by 1863, because both commit â€Å"the fallacy of reversibility†: If the outcome had been reversed, the same factors could be cited to explain a Southern victory. He particularly faults the loss-of-morale thesis, for â€Å"putting the cart before the horse†; defeat was the cause of Southern demoralization and loss of will, McPherson argues, not the consequence. McPherson faults most explanations of Southern defeat for failing to take into account the factor of contingency, the realization that at v arious turning points the war might have taken an entirely different turn.He identifies four critical turning points that shaped the final outcome. The first was in the summer of 1862, when Stonewall Jackson and Lee in Virginia and Braxton Bragg and Edmund Kirby-Smith in the West launched counteroffensives that prevented the Union armies from claiming what had appeared to be certain victory. This rally by the South meant that the war would be prolonged and intensified, and Southern success seemed assured before each of three successive turning points toward Northern victory.First, Union triumphs at Antietam and Perryville in the fall of 1862 turned back Confederate invasions and killed the hope of European recognition for the Confederacy; they may also have prevented a Democratic victory in the 1862 elections, which would have hampered the Lincoln government's ability to prosecute the war, and certainly permitted the president to make his Emancipation Proclamation from a position of political and military strength.The next critical time was during the summer of 1863, when success at Gettysburg, Vicksburg, and Chattanooga turned the North toward eventual military victory. The last one came in the summer of 1864, when enormous Union casualties of the spring campaign in Virginia—three-fifths as many battle deaths as in the previous three years of fighting—combined with the seeming lack of progress forced the North in the direction of peace negotiations and nearly resulted in the election of a Democratic president.William Tecumseh Sherman's capture of Atlanta and Philip Henry Sheridan's destruction of Jubal Early's army in the Shenandoah Valley made Union victory inevitable; only then, after the military situation became impossible, McPherson contends, did the South lose its will to fight. Several important long-term consequences of the Northern victory emerge in McPherson's analysis. Slavery and secession were killed forever, and the word â€Å"Uni ted States† became a singular instead of a plural oun; the â€Å"union† of states, as in â€Å"the United States are a republic† became a nation and an indivisible entity. Replacing the old federal government with which the average citizen rarely came in contact, except at the post office, was a new â€Å"centralized polity. † This national government levied direct taxes and collected them through an internal revenue service that it created itself, drafted citizens into a national army, imposed a national banking system, and instituted numerous other innovations.Eleven of the first twelve amendments to the Constitution, McPherson points out, had restricted the authority of the national government; beginning in 1865 with the Thirteenth Amendment, which abolished slavery, six of the next seven amendments greatly increased federal power at state expense. Finally, the balance of political power shifted from the South, which had controlled the presidency for tw o-thirds of the years since the founding of the republic, and had predominated in the selection of the House Speakers, presidents pro tem of the Senate, and Supreme Court justices.For fifty years after the Civil War no Southerner was elected to the presidency, none of the House Speakers or Senate presidents came from the old Confederacy, and only one-fifth of the Supreme Court justices were appointed from the South. McPherson contends that despite the South's appearance of being different from the rest of the United States, the argument can easily be made that until the Civil War it was actually the rapidly changing North that was out of step with the rest of the world. Although slavery had been largely abolished, most societies had an un-free or only semi-free labor force.Most of the world was rural, agricultural, and traditional; only the northern United States and a few countries in northwestern Europe were speeding toward industrial capitalism. Thus, Southerners were both sincer e and correct when they claimed to be fighting to preserve the republic of the founding fathers: limited government that protected property rights and served an independent gentry and white yeomanry in an agrarian society. The South's preemptive counterrevolution attempted to preserve this tradition, but Union victory in the Civil War ensured the dominance of the Northern vision of America.

Martin Luther King and Severn Suzuki - Calls to Action essays

Martin Luther King and Severn Suzuki - Calls to Action essays I Have a Dream by Martin Luther King and Address to the Plenary Session, Earth Summit by Severn Suzuki, both authors raises their concerns. In the speech I Have a Dream, Martin addresses prominent issues by exposing the racial injustice African Americans faces. I Address to the Plenary Session, Earth Summit Severn Suzuki raised her concern about the destruction of the environment. Both authors utilize their distinctive voice to passes the power in order to create some kind of hope and awareness to the audience. Both Speeches requires action to be taken to fix the concern of the context. Martin Luther King's distinctive voice is a composition of techniques that enables him to alternate the concern of his context. In this speech Martin also demonstrate that hope exists if action is taken in order to eradicate discrimination. Martin Luther Kings speech brings hope to the African American, his reason to engage with the audience is to get a closer relationship with them making it easier for him to communicate and immense the audience into a realm manifested by the distinctive concerns of his time. His quote we cannot walk alone and Let Freedom ring, the combination of the 2 quotes brings hope into the audience. We cannot walk alone the meaning of this quote is, the power of one person is unable to change anything, but together theyre able to stop racial segregation and make changes to their life. Let Freedom ring from every hill and every molehill of Mississippi this quote is very demanding, he wants freedom to fall on Mississippi City. Martin Luther King uses anaphor a and repetition to emphasize his point. I have a dream, each and every individual in this world have their own dream, every single African American have their hope and dream. African American s dream was to become free with equal rights, their d...

Pastoralism and Subsistence Methods

Pastoralism and Subsistence Methods Pastoralism is the ancient method of subsistence farming that substantially relies on the raising and tending of domestic animals. Pastoralism takes place or has taken place in most parts of the world, in climates that range from arid desert to arctic tundra and from forested lowlands to mountain pastures. The ways that pastoralists tend their flocks, then, vary widely depending on farmer flexibility, as well as the regional geographic, ecological, and social conditions. So, to a scientific researcher, pastoralism in its most basic meaning is simply stock keeping. But the study of pastoralists includes the effects stock keeping has on the societies, economies, and lifeways of the groups that keep stock and attach high cultural importance to the animals themselves. Stock Animal Origins Archaeological studies show that the earliest domesticated stock animals- sheep, goats, and pigs- were domesticated about the same time, about 10,000 years ago, in Western Asia. Cattle were first domesticated in the eastern Sahara desert about the same time, and other animals were domesticated later at different times in different areas. Animal domestication as a process still continues: ostriches, today an animal raised by pastoralists, were first domesticated in the mid-19th century. There are many different herded animals, which vary by the place of origin. Africa: cattle, donkeys, ostrichMiddle East: camels, sheep, goats, pigs, ducks, beesCentral Asia: camels, horses, cattle, sheepTibetan Plateau: yaksAndean Highlands: llama, alpaca, guinea pig, ducksCircumpolar arctic: reindeerSoutheast Asia, China, and India: camels, water buffalo, zebu, bantengNorth America: bees, turkeys Why Domesticate? Scholars believe that stock raising arose first when humans moved their domestic stock into drier lands distant from cultivated fields: but pastoralism was not and never has been a static process. Successful farmers adapt their processes to changing circumstances, such as environmental change, population density, and the spread of diseases. Social and technological developments such as road construction and transportation affect processes of production, storage, and distribution. There is a multitude of reasons that people raise stock. Live animals are kept for their blood, milk, and wool, for their dung as fuel and fertilizer, and as transportation and draft animals. They are also food storage, fed fodder that is inedible by humans to create human-edible food, and once slaughtered, they provide skins, sinew, fur, meat, hooves, and bones for a range of purposes from clothing to tools to house construction. Further, stock animals are units of exchange: they can be sold, given as gifts or bride-wealth, or sacrificed for feasting or the general community welfare. Variations on a Theme Thus, the term pastoralism includes many different animals in many different environments. In order to better study stock-tending, anthropologists have tried to categorize pastoralism in a number of ways. One way to look at pastoralism is a set of continuums following several threads: specialization, economy, technology and social changes, and mobility. Some farming systems are highly specialized- they only raise one type of animal- others are highly diversified systems which combine animal husbandry with crop production, hunting, foraging, fishing and trade into a single domestic economy. Some farmers raise animals solely for their own subsistence needs, others produce solely to be marketed to others. Some farmers are helped or hindered by technological or social changes such as the construction of road networks and reliable transportation; the presence of a temporary labor force can also affect pastoralist economies. Pastoralist people often adjust the size of their families to provide that labor force; or adjust the size of their stock to reflect their available labor. Transhumance and Nomads A major study area in pastoralism is another continuum, called transhumance  when human societies move their stock from place to place. At its most basic, some pastoralists move their herds seasonally from pasture to pasture; while others always keep them in a pen and provide them forage. Some are full-time nomads. Nomadism- when farmers move their stock far enough distances to require moving their own houses- is another continuum which is used to measure pastoralism. Semi-nomadic pastoralism is when farmers maintain a permanent home base where old people and tiny children and their caregivers live; full-time nomads move their entire family, clan, or even community as the demands of the animals require. Environmental Demands Pastoralists are found in a wide range of environments, including plains, desert, tundra, and mountains. In the Andes mountains of South America, for example, pastoralists move their flocks of llamas and alpacas between upland and lowland pastures, to escape extremes of temperature and precipitation. Some pastoralists are involved in trade networks: camels were used in the famous Silk Road to move a wide variety of goods across vast reaches of central Asia; llamas and alpacas played a crucial role in the Inca Road system. Identifying Pastoralism in Archaeological Sites Finding archaeological evidence for pastoralist activities is a bit tricky, and as you might guess, varies with the type of pastoralism being studied. Archaeological remains of structures such as pens on farmsteads and at way stations on roadways have been used effectively. The presence of game management equipment, such as horse bits, reins, shoes, and saddles are also clues. Animal fat residues- lipids and alkanoic acids of milk fat- are found on potsherds and provide evidence of dairying activities. Environmental aspects of archaeological sites have been used as supporting evidence, such as changes in pollen over time, which show what types of plants are growing in a region; and the presence of detritivores (mites or other insects that feed on animal dung). Animal skeletons provide a wealth of information: bit wear on teeth, wear on hooves from horseshoes, morphological changes on animal bodies, and domestic herd demography. Pastoralists tend to keep female animals only as long as they reproduce, so pastoralist sites typically have more young female animals than older ones. DNA studies have tracked degrees of genetic difference among herds and domestic lineages. Sources Chepstow from the West African Sahel. Journal of World Prehistory 23(2):43-77.Little MA. 2015. Chapter 24 - Pastoralism. Basics in Human Evolution. Boston: Academic Press. p 337-347.Montero RG, Mathieu J, and Singh C. 2009. Mountain Pastoralism 1500-2000: An Introduction. Nomadic Peoples 13:1-16.Nielsen AE. 2009. Pastoralism and the Non-Pastoral World in the Late Pre-Columbian History of the Southern Andes (10001535). Nomadic Peoples 13:17-35.

Why You Should Never Take a Job Below Your Skill Level

Why You Should Never Take a Job Below Your Skill Level Many often find themselves considering jobs below their skill level in tough employment markets. Faced with ongoing unemployment, or the option of part-time or temporary work, one might think that taking a full-time job, regardless of whether it falls below your level of qualifications, is the best option. But it turns out that there is scientific proof that working in a job below your skill level harms your later chances of getting hired for a better-paying job more appropriate to your qualifications. Sociologist David Pedulla at  The University of Texas at Austin examined the question of how  part-time jobs, temporary jobs, and jobs below a persons skill level affect future employability. Specifically, he wondered how this employment variable would influence whether applicants received a callback (via phone or email) from a prospective employer. Pedulla also wondered whether gender might interact with the employment variable to influence the outcome. To examine these questions Pedulla conducted a now fairly common experimenthe created fake resumes and submitted them to firms that were hiring. He submitted 2,420 fake  applications to 1,210 job listings posted in five major cities across the U.S.New  York City, Atlanta, Chicago, Los  Angeles, and Bostonand advertised on a major national job-posting website. Pedulla constructed the study to examine four different kinds of jobs, including  sales, accounting/bookkeeping,  project management/management, and  administrative/clerical positions. He tailored the fake resumes and applications so that each demonstrated a six-year history of employment and professional experience relevant to the occupation. In order to address his research questions, he varied the applications by gender, and also by employment status for the previous year. Some applicants were listed as having been employed full-time, while others listed part-time or temporary work, working in a job below the appl icants skill level, and others were unemployed for the year prior to the current application. The careful construction and execution of this study allowed Pedulla to find clear, compelling, and statistically significant results that show that  applicants who were positioned as working below their skill level, regardless of gender, received only half as many callbacks as those who were working in full-time jobs the previous yeara callback rate of just five percent compared to a little more than ten percent (also regardless of gender). The study also revealed that while part-time employment did not negatively affect the employability of women, it did for men, resulting in a callback rate of less than five percent. Being unemployed in the previous year had a modestly negative impact on women, reducing the callback rate to 7.5 percent, and was much more negative for men, who were called back at a rate of just 4.2 percent. Pedulla found that temporary work did not affect the callback rate. In the study,  published in the April 2016  issue of  American Sociological Review  as  Penalized or Protected? Gender and the Consequences of Nonstandard and Mismatched Employment Histories,  Pedulla remarked, ...these results indicate that part-time work and skills underutilization are as scarring for male workers as a year of unemployment. These results should serve as a cautionary tale to anyone considering taking a job bellow their skill level. While it might pay the bills in the short-term, it can significantly hamper ones ability to return to the relevant skill-level and pay grade at a later date. Doing so literally cuts in half your chances of getting called for an interview. Why might this be the case? Pedulla conducted a follow-up survey with 903 people in charge of hiring at a variety of companies across the nation in order to find out. He asked them  about their perceptions of applicants with each kind of employment history, and how likely they would be to recommend each kind of candidate to an interview. The results show that employers believe that men who are employed part-time or in positions below their skill level are less committed and less competent than men in other employment situations. Those surveyed also believed that women working below their skill level were less competent than others, but did not believe them to be less committed. Couched in the valuable insights offered by the findings of this study is a reminder of the troubling ways in which gender stereotypes shape perceptions and expectations of people in the workplace. Because part-time work is considered normal for women  it has a feminine connotation, even though it is increasingly common for all people under advanced capitalism. The results of this study, which show that men are penalized for part-time work when women are not, suggest that part-time work signals a failure of masculinity among men, signaling to employers incompetence and a lack of commitment. This is a disturbing reminder that the sword of gender bias does in fact cut both ways.

Chavin cultural and ceramic influence on the Moche Essay

Chavin cultural and ceramic influence on the Moche - Essay Example In addition, the Chavin also engaged in metalworking as evident in the production of hammered gold items or ornaments. On the other hand, it is the elements derived from the Chavin civilization that influenced the Moche culture. The Moche are recognized for various art form which include sculpture and pottery, and their design provides a history of how the Moche civilization progressed in phases. Through the objects they incised on their pottery, it is evident that the Moche civilization was popular and their main aim was to amass power and wealth.1 Moche vessels appeared to be flat-bottomed, and their stirrup-spouted jars are a product of the Chavin prototypes. These pots were decorated using a bichrome slip; however; early vessels made by the Moche were molded to using the hands and not potter’s wheel that helped in fashioning later vessels to form two-piece molds. The Moche pottery later focused on refining their vessels; thus, narrowing the vessels and making them smaller compared to the Chavin vessels. Furthermore, the Moche ceramics were produced through molding and had standardized shapes in addition to their distinct decoration. There exists nine different shapes of Moche ceramics documented in literature and this includes vessels such as flared bowls and stirrup-spout bottles. It is through these vessels that artists illustrated complex paintings and figurative scenes. Moreover, Moche vessels are considered to represent an infinite and different variety of subjects, whereby among the identifiable zoomorphic figures involves reptiles, bats among other figures. Moche pottery is viewed as varied and mainly focuses on mold technology, which facilitates the production of various forms of ceramic vessels. In addition, Moche pottery is unique in terms of theme and the shape and most of their social activities have been documented in their pottery work. Moche ceramics which were produced at around 150-800AD illustrates the use of a limited palette; furt her, their coloration is viewed as simple, and the pottery they produce often appear to depict actual individuals.2 Stirrup- Spout Vessels were a common ceramic form during the Pre-Columbian period and these vessels were available in various designs or elegances; however; their shared characteristic was a handle or a spout. In essence, these vessels represented a window into the traditions that were practiced by the Pre-Columbian cultures. These vessels depicted various aspects of life such that of animals, plants whereby some of these animals represented deities or portraits symbolizing daily life events. The first produced vessels in Pre-Columbian period can be associated with the Chavin culture, and were later duplicated by other cultures that emerged after the Chavin demise. Vessels produced by the Chavin consisted of large chambers, a surface relief, a dark burnished color and a spout. Furthermore, Chavin vessels contained both aggressive and powerful images and they had decora tions that were crudely incised. These Stirrup- Spout vessels became more popular with the emergence of the Moche culture and they relied on various techniques to create vessels. On the same note, a common feature with the Moche ceramics involved the use of red colorings and cream. In addition, the incised objects depicted symbols that represented deities, animals and anthropomorphization of various figures undertaking different

Changes in Network Structure and Ownership of US Broadcast Television Case Study

Changes in Network Structure and Ownership of US Broadcast Television - Case Study Example The site inspection conducted on 3 selected venues at London Hilton, the London Park Lane and the International Continental Hotel, Park Lane and the key issues involved in hiring a particular venue are elaborated. Further, these 3 venues are compared and analysed for the suitability of choosing a specific venue to stage the event. The wedding day is one the most memorable moment in a girl's life. Therefore, it is the aspiration of every girl to celebrate it in a unique, memorable and fascinating way. The bride and the group want to celebrate this wedding in a secular way as none of them has any religious background. After discussing various ideas as to how this event should be celebrated, it is decided to do a 1920's themed wedding so as to impress the attendees with a different and unique experience in which the food, the d'cor, the flower arrangements and the dress have typical elements to mark it an 'poque. They want to celebrate their commitment and share this beautiful day with their friends and family. The attendees being in the range of 30-70 of age are encouraged to be highly appreciated for their formal dress according to the occasion. The style of the themed wedding is formal and emphasis is laid on elegance, sophistication and grandeur of the 1920's. The attendees coming from abroad are accommodated in a 5 star hotel.. 3. Venue selection process Over the past 10 years the demand from the private and public sector to hold the sports and festival events has been increased. Consequently, the venues have to be selected according to the demand and nature of the festival to accommodate and entertain the attendees. Monroe (2006) describes two types of venue verities available; the standard type venues like hotels, conference centres and restaurants, and the non-standard venues, built for other purpose than staging events, like museums, stadiums and parks. There are also unique venues like airports, hangers and historical sites etc. He further highlights the advantages of the purpose-built venues as they are cost-effective and usually provide most of the standard requirements, while the non-standard venues have limited services to offer to their customers, hence, the manager of the event has to work around with what is available (Monroe, 2006). Finding a suitable cost-effective venue is a constant challenge for the event organizer (Confex 2007). London Launch reveals there are more and more venues that see potential to increase their revenue by hiring buildings out for special events. In London alone, there are more than thousand of venues available to cater for all types of events. Yeoman et at (2006) is of the view that the venue selection process is one the most important element for staging an event as the success or failure depends solely on its right selection. Therefore, the following aspects should be given due consideration before selecting a venue. Does the venue match with the selected theme' What is the capacity of the venue' Is the venue accessible' What facilities does the venue offer' What is the price and what is included' What is the availability perspective' What is the venue's reputation'

Scottish Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Scottish Law - Essay Example A separate parliament for Scotland was established in 1999, with power to legislate on most areas of private law." (Real Property Law, 16 September 2008). The year 1707 saw the union of Scotland and England; prior to this both the countries were separate states and many similarities in their laws. English Law has a great influence on the Scottish Law; many rules followed by the English were included in the Scottish Law. This paper will throw light upon the Scottish law focusing majorly upon three traditional rules of statutory interpretation which are mischief rule, the golden rule and the literal rule Mischief rule is applied when the judge can't quite make out whether an act done by a person can be called as a prohibited law, this creates a confused situation and this is exactly when the mischief rule can be applied. "For example, the Street Offences Act 1959 made it an offence for a prostitute to solicit men 'in a street or public place'. In Smith v. Hughes the question was whether a woman who had tapped on a balcony and hissed at men passing by was guilty of an offence under the Act. Parker, L.C.J., found her guilty: 'I approach the matter by considering what is the mischief aimed at by this Act. Everybody (sic) knows that this was an Act intended to clean up the streets, to enable people to walk along the streets without being molested or solicited by common prostitutes. Viewed in that way, it can matter little whether the prostitute is soliciting while in the street or standing in a doorway or on a balcony." (Interpretation of Law 16 September 2008). The case given as an exa mple did not create a big hitch in applying the Mischief Law because the circumstances in which the mischief was committed were well known but in other cases it is often a very difficult task to apply the Mischief Rule. This rule has several benefits over the Golden Rule and the Literal which will be seen in the paper at a later stage. One advantage which this rule provides is that, the Law provides a feeling of satisfaction to the Law commission the Law commission considers this as one of the most satisfying rule to judge a situation because when this rule is applied, the Law commission looks at various things like what does the Law provide before the act is made and numerous other things, this rule is applied with reasoning hence it provides the Law commission with satisfaction. Another advantage of this law is that it provides the convict with what he/she deserves, in the sense that there is room for unjust in this rule, making this as one of the want to bee's for any legislature . The Golden Rule "Where the meaning of words in a statute, if strictly applied, would lead to an absurdity, the golden rule is that the courts are entitled to assume that Parliament did not intend such absurdity, and they will construe the Act to give it the meaning which Parliament intended." (Interpretation of Law 16 September 2008). This rule mainly focuses upon giving an absurd or a silly result, when a judge feels that he/she is about to pass a silly result or verdict this is when the Golden rule plays its part. This rule is also called a compromise between the two other rules which are the mischief rule and the literal rule. This basically means that this rule falls somewhere in the middle of the two other rules and tries to find a way out and the way out differs from the solutions provided by

Critical Thinking Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Critical Thinking - Research Paper Example When HP, Compaq, and Dell developed PCs and offered to the individuals at an affordable cost, the market grew at an exponential rate. It was too late for IBM then to grab a respectable share in PC market. A critical and creative thinking on part of the IBM to serve large small consumers at an affordable cost would have prevented others to grab the huge market that it culminated into within a decade or so. Free will is a philosophical term for which most philosophers believe that the free will is related with moral responsibility. Acting with free will means one is responsible for ones action. Free will, according to Rene Descartes, means freedom of choice to do or not to do something (Stanford encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2010). Socrates rightly said that truth can be approached by complete ignorance and not by any preconceived notions and beliefs. When one questions all established belief system then one goes nearer to the truth. Usually, it is believed that knowledge is an observational phenomenon but according to ‘rationalists’, knowledge can also be gained purely by thinking. This contrasts the view point of ‘empiricists’ that all knowledge is gained through observations. In order to understand what knowledge is and how it will be available, one needs to ponder over what role knowing might play or what inherent value it may offer – if there is any (Internet Encyclopedia of philosophy (2012). Usually, opinions are formed before hand before going deeper into the details. Each one of us has preconceived beliefs and opinions about so many things and that come in our way in finding the truth. Opinions without any basis are great impediments to our free thinking. Egocentrism is hindrance to critical thinking because it revolves around self-centered thinking. It has two major forms known as self-serving and self-interested thinking. Egocentrism develops due to superiority feeling in

Organizational stakeholders Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Organizational stakeholders - Essay Example The external are those outside the organization but still has interest in the organization such as the regulatory agencies and the general public. It is important to understand the role of stakeholders so that the company can act responsibly to its various stakeholders. This understanding of the interest of the various stakeholders in the company can serve as a guide for the company as it craft its strategy and executes its operations making sure that these strategies and corporate acts are consistent with the interest of the various stakeholders of the company. The internal stakeholders have a direct interest in the success of the company but it must be balanced with the interest of the external stakeholders. Minding the interest of internal stakeholders alone may make the company short sighted in its pursuit of satisfying the interest of profit of its internal stakeholders. It should be balanced with the interest of the external shareholders to ensure the long term going concern of the company as it balances its interest for profit with social responsibility. "Understanding Organizational Stakeholders for Design Success."Â  Boxes and Arrows Understanding Organizational Stakeholders for Design Success Comments. 6 May 2004. Web. 8 Mar. 2015.

Marginalization in Haiti, Peru, Russian Term Paper

Marginalization in Haiti, Peru, Russian - Term Paper Example The Russian Federation, Haiti, and Peru are classified as developing countries, which is mainly due to the unevenness of their respective people’s access to national resources. There are small numbers of extremely rich and powerful individuals enjoying the national wealth while a large group of the populations remain marginalized and kept aloof from the resources and political power.   Regardless, the former kind of marginalization is manifested in the three countries, especially among members of the middle-class segment of the populations. The population segment face marginalization in terms of access to higher education, comprehensive medical care, proper nutrition, and adequate housing due to poor paying jobs and lack of adequate training. However, some members of the group enjoy food stamps, fair-priced housing, universal elementary education, and access to emergency health care. However, these safety nets are inadequate and are usually overstretched by other pressures such as overpopulation. For instance, constant natural disasters such as floods have usually exposed substantial numbers of Haitian middle-class, for instance, to the problem of overstretched rescue teams and medical resources (Kidder Chapter 3). Certainly, these populations live in extremely trying situations and feel marginalized by the fewer more, affluent members of the society.  On the oth er hand, abject poverty which is the focus of the protagonist and his community is attributed to a lack of any safety net for vast populations. The group is represented by the lower-class populations of Russia, Haiti, and Peru who cannot access footwear, safe water for drinking, basic education and health care (Kidder Chapters 4 and 5). In addition, those who are in abject poverty are completely marginalized in terms of access to housing as evidenced in inadequate floor area, leaking roofs, improper furniture, and walls or other finishing.  Ã‚     

Organizational stakeholders Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Organizational stakeholders - Essay Example The external are those outside the organization but still has interest in the organization such as the regulatory agencies and the general public. It is important to understand the role of stakeholders so that the company can act responsibly to its various stakeholders. This understanding of the interest of the various stakeholders in the company can serve as a guide for the company as it craft its strategy and executes its operations making sure that these strategies and corporate acts are consistent with the interest of the various stakeholders of the company. The internal stakeholders have a direct interest in the success of the company but it must be balanced with the interest of the external stakeholders. Minding the interest of internal stakeholders alone may make the company short sighted in its pursuit of satisfying the interest of profit of its internal stakeholders. It should be balanced with the interest of the external shareholders to ensure the long term going concern of the company as it balances its interest for profit with social responsibility. "Understanding Organizational Stakeholders for Design Success."Â  Boxes and Arrows Understanding Organizational Stakeholders for Design Success Comments. 6 May 2004. Web. 8 Mar. 2015.

Hypothetical population, Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Hypothetical population, - Essay Example It must be kept in mind that such populations do not practically occur in nature because over a period of time, evolutionary factors affect the population in some way or the other. In the equation given above represents the frequency of the homozygous dominants, gives the frequency of homozygous recessive while 2pq represents the frequency of the heterozygotes. The frequency of the dominant and the recessive alleles may be calculated by square-rooting the homozygous dominant and recessive genotype frequencies. Therefore gives the dominant allelic frequency while gives the recessive allelic frequency. However, the equation hold true for populations the comply with Hardy-Weinberg assumptions which means that in populations whose gene pool is disturbed by factors such as gene flow, genetic drift, mutations and in selectively bred populations, the equation will not be enough for proper estimation. In the given problem, it has been stated that 25 out of every 100 children are born with attached earlobes. We already know that attached earlobe phenotype is an expression of recessive homozygous genotype. Assuming that all assumptions of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium are met, we may apply the law to estimate allelic and genotypic frequencies of the given population. Let us assume that UU is the dominant homozygous gene, Ua is the heterozygous genotype while uu is the homozygous recessive gene. As given in the problem, uu causes attached earlobe phenotype while both UU and Uu cause unattached earlobes. In order to estimate the dominant and the recessive frequencies of the alleles we utilize Hardy Weinberg’s equation directly since we do not know the exact number of heterozygotes. To estimate allelic frequency of attached earlobes: Using the values of the frequencies of both the dominant and the recessive alleles that we obtained we can also calculate the frequency of the heterozygous genotype since the exact

Bisexual And Transgender LGBT

Bisexual And Transgender LGBT Homosexual identity is abstracted as a life-spanning development process. This process eventually leads a person to personal acceptance of a positive gay self-image and a clear personal identity (Minton McDonald, 2012). According to Habermas theory of ego development, it is utilized to provide a synthesis and understanding of the literature on the construction and maintenance of the homosexual identity. It is concluded that the homosexual identity generally emerges in a three-stage process, in which the person progresses from (1) an egocentric interpretation of homoerotic feelings to (2) an internalization of the normative, conventional assumptions about homosexuality to (3) a post-conventional phase in which societal norms are critically evaluated and the positive gay identity is achieved and managed. In short, homosexual develops in three stages. The first stage is the homoerotic feelings in a self-centered way. The second stage is the internalization of the normative, assuming ho mosexuality in a convention way. The final stage is a post-conventional phase where the critical evaluation of societal norms happens and the positive gay identity is achieved and managed. However, no one knows how exactly homosexuality entered into human history. According to Samhsa, the terms lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) describe distinct groups within the gay culture. The early initiatives for people who were gay focused mostly on men. So, in an attempt to draw attention to issues specific to gay women, lesbian is often listed first. People who are bisexual or transgender have been traditionally left out of, or underrepresented in, research studies and health initiatives. Other than that, a study from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy revealed that the term homosexuality was coined in the late 19th century by German psychologist, Karoly Maria Benkert. Although the term is new, discussions about sexuality and same-sex attraction have occasioned philosophical discussion ranging from Platos Symposium to contemporary queer theory (Pickett, Brent, 2011). However, the gay group is different from sissies and tomboy. According to Sexuality Information and Education Council of the United State, the dictionary itself documents the distinction between tomboy and sissy with gay, while tomboy refers to romping, boisterous, boyish young girl, sissy an effeminate boy or man, a timid or cowardly person (Siecus Report, 2003). Thus for a boy been called sissy can be devastating, as it pierces his self-image at its most vulnerable point. By contrast, tomboy is said with approving tones, and does not detract from a girls sense of worth (Green, 1979). By this definition, it could be understood that a gay individual is more likely to have same sex attraction, but a sissy person may only behave like a girl while having a normal sexuality as other heterosexual males. According to National Academic Advising Association (NACADA), LGBT refers to Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender. The term gay refers to both men and women who are attracted to persons of the same sex. Lesbian is the term used specifically for women who are romantically and sexually attracted to other women. Bisexual is used to indicate that a person is attracted to both men and women. Some describe bisexuality as an attraction to the qualities a person possesses rather than the gender of the person who possesses the qualities. Bisexual persons often experience a lack of acceptance in both heterosexual and GL communities because of misconceptions and stereotypes associated with bisexuality. Finally, transgender is an umbrella term used to describe someone who experiences his/her gender in a way that varies along a continuum from masculine to feminine (Brown Rounsley, 1996; Perez, DeBord Bieschke, 2000; Cunningham, 2003; Smith 2006). Hall (1996) coined the term of under erasure to refer to the LGBT individuals who happen to occupy outside the field. Within the gay and lesbian community, the subjective voices of transgender people are often marginalized or ignored (Minter, 2000) It indicates that the social status of the LGBT persons often insignificant and lower in rank. Social networking sites are spots where youth are easily influence by sexual text, photos and videos and also creates such materials by own (Rebecca, 2001). New media helps in addressing issues such as sexual health and their important role of youth at risk depends on media which is in use (Kaiser Family Foundation, 2010). To see the ever present queerness in the most prosaic straightness is important to be sure, as it has been for every oppressed minority. Visibility is much important to gays and lesbian because change of social acceptance. 1.1 Problem Statement This study addresses the issue of the portrayal of the marginalized group, known to be LGBT, by the new media and to what extent it influences the perceptions of the young individuals towards this group. A study performed by Free Malaysia Today stated that the Centre for Independent Journalism reprimanded the Malaysian print media for their lop-sided reporting on the Azwan Ismail video that was first made by a group called Seksualiti Merdeka. Azwan, an engineer, shot to fame after he stated his sexual preference in a video entitled, I am Gay, I am Okay. The video was first aired in an event organized by Seksualiti Merdeka. His open statement, however, did not go down well with other media. The Malay dailies newspaper and the community made their displeasure known via various cyber platforms. Some even went to the extent of issuing death threats against Azwan. One prominent Muslim blogger took the government to task for its failure in curbing the spread of gay and lesbian activities ( Free Malaysia Today, 2011). Other than that, Youth Pride Inc also stated that 36.5 % of GLB youth grades 9-12 have attempted suicide and 20.5% of those attempts resulting in medical care (Robin, 2002). In 2005, Gay, Lesbian and Straight Education Network (GLSEN) survey of LGBT youth, 90% reported experiencing verbal or physical harassment or verbal assault in the past year (Harris Interactive GLSEN, 2005). All these findings share one conclusion namely LGBT people are greatly discriminated in the society. This study thus chooses to highlight on homosexuality and Seksualiti Merdeka with aims to create awareness among todays generation about the need to respect every persons right, including the rights to be homosexuals. 1.2 Research Objectives To discover the new medias portrayal of the LGBT community in Malaysia. To examine the Malaysian youths perceptions towards the LGBT community in general and specifically towards Seksualiti Merdeka. To create awareness about the issue of homosexuality among Malaysian youths. 1.3 Research Questions How are new medias portrayals of the LGBT community in Malaysia? What are the Malaysian youths perceptions towards the LGBT community and Seksualiti Merdeka? How far Malaysian youths are aware about the issue of homosexuality? 1.4 Research Hypothesis This research has one hypothesis, which is if the new media portrays the LGBT community negatively; the perceptions of youth towards LGBT community will be negative. This means, if the new media portrays the LGBT community positively, the perceptions of youth towards LGBT community will be positive. 1.5 Research Significance This study examines the influence of new media on the youths perception towards LGBT community. The researchers highlight youth perceptions on this issue because in the modern era today, youths are expected to be more open minded apart of being daring to voice out their opinions about any arising issues. A research by Pew Internet America Life Project (2007) revealed that 94 percent of internet users are young people with age range between 18 to 29 years old. This finding indicated that youths today are the active users of new media such as social networks, forums, blogs etc. With new media, the youths can easily get information about LGBT issues that occured in the country or abroad. Therefore, the youths may have more awareness towards LGBT groups. New media is becoming a platform for the youth to express their opinions and to discuss about any issues. Therefore, the researchers think that, there is a need to study more about the influence of new media on youths perceptions towards LGBT community. This study will help to instil awareness and provide a better perspective about the issues of LGBT and Seksualiti Merdeka to upcoming generation. It can also be useful and functional as reference for future researchers who are interested to expand the discussion on similar topics and areas. LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Media Portrayal of LGBT Society has always had a general fear or disdain for homosexuality. That is why the media tended to support the already common perceptions, instead of challenging them (Montgomery, 1981). According to Kanter (2012), since the start of television programming, the forms of LGBT characters in entertainment or popular culture have both been limited. If they did exist, they were either exaggeratingly stereotypical, or associated with criminality or deviance. All the way through the 1980s, gay characters were seen on television as cameo roles with particular problems that hold almost non-existent lives, absent of desire or relationships. With the spread of the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) epidemic, starting in the 1980s and into the 1990s, homosexuals were portrayed in more substantial, reoccurring roles (Netzley, 2010). Jackson Gilbertson (2009) explained that versions of the media lesbian that preceded her contemporary incarnation as hot typically cast her in stereotypical and undesirable ways, for example as masculine and unattractive (Wilton, 1995; Ciasullo, 2001). Dow (2001) notes how the lesbian on television historically occupied a fleeting space as an object of humor or as a villain. In her contemporary guise, the media lesbian can most often be seen as constituted within post-feminist discourses that produce women as sexually desiring, sexually plural, and self-pleasing (McRobbie, 1996). Gamson (1995) encouraged the homosexuals to tell their views in the talk shows. Talk show is the place where they get the attention they want and rise out their views which they cannot get in other ways. He is also the only spot in mainstream media culture where it is possible for non-heterosexuals to speak for themselves. A study shows the changes in attitudes towards homosexuality in the United State through fashion in public opinion polls. The results were considered by issues connected to homosexuality which integrated legal status, morality, acceptability, causes, familiarity with self-identified homosexuals, as well as views on both military and nonmilitary occupations, civil rights, marriage and adoption rights, and AIDS. This also concluded that community behavior have shifted in a free-thinking path (Yang, 1997). 2.2 LGBT Youngsters Engagement with New Media Past research had supported the idea that the Internet is frequently a lifeline in the development of sexual health among LGBT young people (Hillier Harrison, 2007). Many of them first come out online, and report learning about sexual behaviours, pursuing friendships with other LGBT young people, and exploring same-sex attraction online (Harper, Bruce, Serrano, Jamil, 2009; Hillier Harrison, 2007). Social networking tools had been widely used among youngsters in getting sexual health information. Importantly, social networking tools do not only allow researchers and practitioners to receive and provide information, but also allow the LGBT young people to exchange information and experiences with LGBT peers, engendering broader development of their sexual health (Bargh McKenna, 2004). This opportunity allows for a greater chance for LGBT young people to test out identities and gather information in a more controlled, private environment than is typical among general Internet resources or large social networking sites (Joshua, Louisa, Samantha Brian, 2011). According to Wilkerson (1994), there several types of homophobic attitudes like the treatment of people with human immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) about ways in which HIV is transmitted, media representation of AIDS and the way the medicines purpose reinforces a positive view inimical to lesbians and bisexuals. African-American news websites are growing in influence in terms of the number and loyalty of the unique visitors they attract. Homophobia and discrimination are the top storylines on the African-American news websites we analyzed, followed by culture, religion, and same-sex marriage in equal measure (Siegel, 2012). 2.3 Health Issues among LGBT Community By the 1990s, lesbian, the LGBT youth have appeared only as a separate cultural group. There are quite few youth identified themself or turn as LGBT since social sanctions and stigma contributed to severe repercussions and isolation, limiting access to supportive communities and awareness of sexual and gender identities in the earlier periods. However, only a handful addressed the needs of youths although a range of lesbian and gay service organizations developed in large cities during the 1970s and 1980s. According to Makadon (2008), elimination of health disparities among LGBT individuals, also collectively called sexual minorities, is a critical need for focus on their health. LGBT populations are disproportionately at risk for violent hate crimes, sexually transmitted infections (STIs) including HIV/ AIDS, a variety of mental health conditions, substance abuse and certain cancers. However, LGBT patients frequently encounter problems with access to quality health services, experiences disparities in screening for chronic conditions, and report a lack of counseling pertinent to actual lifestyle behaviors. Historically, homosexuality has been judged quite harshly due to cultural and religious taboos. The Pew Research Centres 2003 Global Attitudes Survey found that the majority of people in Western European and major Latin American countries (Mexico, Argentina, Bolivia and Brazil) believe that homosexuality should be accepted by society, while most Russians, Poles and Ukrainians disagreed, and people in Africa and the Middle East objected strongly. Meanwhile, majority of Americans believe that homosexuality should be accepted (Makadon, 2008). Stigma, prejudice and discrimination create a stressful social environment that can lead to a variety of health problems among LGBT group. In LGBT group, minority stress is caused by (a) an external, objective traumatic event, such as being assaulted or being fired from a job; (b) the expectation of rejection and development of vigilance in interactions with others; (c) the internalization of negative societal attitudes (also known as internalized homophobia, transphobia, or biphobia); and (d) the concealment of gender identity or sexual orientation out of shame and guilt or to protect oneself from real harm. In addition, research shows a relationship between internalized homophobia/biphobia and various forms of self-harm, including eating disorders, high-risk sexual activity, substance abuse and suicide (Makadon, 2008). According to Rosan (1978), homophobia is a shortened form of homophilephobia, which means the fear of person neither of ones own sex, clearly not the connotation giv en to these terms in common parlance nor in professional literature. Garner (2008; as cited in Mulick Wright Jr., 2003) describes biphobia as psychological construct of negative attitudes towards bisexual individuals and bisexuality in general. In Malaysia, the rising trend of sexual transmission from 5.3% in 1990 to 22.15% in 2005 (Ministry of Health AIDS/STD Section) indicates that the situation could expand into a general epidemic. Furthermore, the proportion of women infected has risen from 1.4% in 1990 to 14.5% in 2005 (Ministry of Health AIDS/STD Section). Indeed, the female to male ratio of new infections has narrowed substantially. In sharp contrast to men, 64% of HIV infections in women were sexually transmitted. The result of HIV situation has an emergency need to go for gender-sensitive national respond by Malaysia government (Zulkifli, Lee, Yun, Lin, 2007). To do better in lend a hand to LGBT group for their healthcare, people should spend more time and attention to learn about LGBT health and obtain support in making educational improvements. Explanation focus on the clinician-patient relationship and address all threes domains of learning which comprised of attitudes, knowledge and skills would help clinicians to provide better care to LGBT patients. Attitudes have a major effect on health outcomes. Attention to attitudes requires growth in the affective arena. For clinicians, this involves developing awareness of and respect for a patients differences and willingness to listen empathically to that persons experience (Makadon, 2008). 2.4 LGBT involvement in international human rights Under international human rights law, all persons who including LGBT community are entitled to equal rights, including the rights to life, security of person and privacy, freedom from torture, arbitrary arrest and detention, and the right to be free from discrimination (The Road To Safety, 2012). There are more than 80 countries still maintaining the laws that make same-sex consensual relations between adults a criminal offence. In year 2008, such laws were used in Morocco to convict six men, after allegations that a private party they had attended was a gay marriage. On 19 July 2007, six men were arrested after a young man who had been arrested on theft charges was coerced by police into naming associates who were presumed to be homosexual (OFlaherty Fisher, 2008). According to journal The Road to Safety (2012), LGBT refugees in Uganda and Kenya are among the most vulnerable of refugee populations. Due to their sexual orientation or gender identity, they can be targeted for violence by other refugees and some members of the host populations, harassed and extorted by police officers, and marginalized from accessing services from government institutions, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), or the U.N. High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). According to Julie (2006), LGBT advocates have engaged in two very different kinds of activities on the international human rights stage. First, they have engaged in traditional human rights activism, using the traditional human rights techniques of monitoring and reporting to apply existing human rights norms to LGBT lives. These rights included the right to privacy in the criminal law context; the right to equality; the right to family; the right to non-discrimination; the right to freedom from torture (applicable in cases of forcible cures for homosexuality and psychiatric mistreatment generally); and the right of transsexuals to recognition of their new gender. Second, they have tapped into both traditional monitoring techniques and human rights culture-building efforts to promote new international human rights that are important to LGBT lives, including the right to sexuality. Until the mid- to late-1990s, most of LGBT advocates that involved in the international work on gay rights were also working with LGBT-specific organizations, such as the International Lesbian and Gay Association (ILGA). This organization was found in 1978 in Brussels as a world federation organization, and today it is joined by more than 500 gay and lesbian organizations from ninety countries on all inhabited continents. From its inception, ILGA has focused on presenting discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation as a global issue. Another prominent group during this era was the International Gay and Lesbian Human Rights Commission (IGLHRC), founded originally in 1990 by Russian and US activists and now a US-based organization with offices in San Francisco, New York, and Buenos Aires (Julie, 2006). 2.5 Seksualiti Merdeka in Malaysia The rejection of homosexuality by Malaysian law and culture leads to the rise of human rights to the LGBT people. An increasing integration of Islamic political thinking and practice that builds on literal interpretations of Islamic textual sources is the main reason for why LGBT rights are neglected. Muslims who are under group of LGBT facing politically charged from conservative of normative Islamic discourses on sexuality and gender. To fight for their rights, LGBT community in Malaysia had formed Seksualiti Merdeka or Sexuality Independence in the year 2008, founded by Pang Khee Teik and Jerome Kugan. Seksualiti Merdeka is an annual sexuality rights festival held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, and represents a coalition of Malaysian Non-Government Organizations which included Malaysian Bar Council, Suara Rakyat Malaysia (SUARAM), Empower, Pink Triangle Foundation (PT Foundation), United Nations, Amnesty International and general public. The term used to highlight the fact that even after Malaysia independence, not all Malaysians are free to be who they are. The organization believes that everyone in Malaysia deserves to be free from discrimination, harassment and violence for their sexual orientations and their gender identities. They believe it is our right to be responsible for our own body and believe everyone is entitled to the freedom to love and the freedom to be, whether gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender, i ntersexes, straight, asexual, pansexual, or simply fabulous (Sexualiti Merdeka, n.d.). Being a Muslim-majority country, Malaysia would have to reiterate its strong objections to a policy that clearly contradicts the principles enshrined in the religion of Islam. On November 3, 2011, police banned Seksualiti Merdeka as the festival was deemed a threat to national security and a threat to public order. Co-founder of Seksualiti Merdeka Pang Khee Teik said that they are not trying to promote homosexuality. This festival is actually the chance for Malaysians to listen to their story, why after all these years of trying to be somebody else, some of them have found peace with themselves and to accept who they are (Chun, 2011). According to Mosbergen (2012), on September 2012, Malaysias Education Ministry has endorsed guidelines to help parents identify gay and lesbian symptoms in their children. The guidelines are as below:- Symptoms of gays: Likes having a fit body and likes to show off by wearing V-neck and sleeveless clothes; A preference for tight and bright-colored clothes; Attraction to men; and A preference for carrying big handbags, similar to those used by women. Symptoms of lesbians: Attraction to women; Besides their female companions, they tend to distance themselves from other women; A preference for going out, having meals etc. with women and a preference for sleeping in the company of women; Not attracted to men Pang Khee Teik, however disagreed with the guidelines and he advised the ministry to rely on sound research instead of endorsing pseudo-experts as this could be damaging to children. Pang said education is an important tool to address inequality but the ministry had instead sought to use it for teaching hate, promoting inequality and playing politics. Besides that, the ministry should teach all children to be confident and to respect one another, no matter who they are. Seksualiti Merdeka thus was prepared to brief the Education Ministry if its officers were willing to listen to reliable research on the LGBT community (Asia One, 2012). 2.6 Online discussion of sexuality According to Mckee (2004), in one of the  ¬Ã‚ rst published articles addressing online discussions of sexuality, the homophobic comments made by composition students using the synchronous chat program interchange to brainstorm possible topics for a research essay (as cited in Regan, 1993). When a student raised homosexuality as a possible topic, a number of students posted homophobic comments: Were taught that homosexuality is a sin; A homosexual once made a move on me. I really didnt like it. I mean I really didnt like it! and To whoever was thinking about the topics of death and homosexuality, heres a thought, why not join together and do a project on the death of homosexuals? Not by AIDS. At the time of the exchange, the researcher Regan was unsure what to do when confronted with these comments, but she did try to redirect the conversation by interjecting, Has anyone thought about writing about homophobia? but it does not seem that her efforts were successful at redirecting what she called socially sanctioned classroom terrorism (McKee, 2004). Regan was distressed that the online environment enabled students to articulate their fear and hatred of homosexuals in a way that would not have happened in the traditional classroom, and she concluded that online spaces are not egalitarian, as was frequently claimed at the time. 2.7 Discrimination towards LGBT group in Malaysian Context Malaysia is one of the countries that illegalized homosexuality. Among the reasons for the country`s disapproval of homosexuality is its status as an Islamic nation, where everything that goes against the Islamic law and teaching is strictly prohibited and thus, condemned. According to Goh (2012), the rejection of same-sex behavior is not one that has emerged from a socio-political vacuum. Sexuality is considered taboo (Goh, 2012; as cited in Jerome, 2008) and appears to have a prominent place in the psyche of many Malaysians, notably institutional quadrants of Islam. Islamic civil and religious authorities closely observed on Muslims in Malaysia, ravaging the sexual lives of Muslims that are as private as khalwat (illicit close proximity) and zina (illicit sex or adultery) (Lee, 2010:31). In the Malaysian legal context, male homosexuality or gayness as a globally-recognized cultural trope has no direct equivalence to sexual identitiesà £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ Section 377A, 377B and 377C of the Malaysian Penal Code make provisions against acts of sodomy or liwat without being gender-specific, although it is in section 2 of the Syariah Criminal Offences (Federal Territory) Act 1997 that one discovers a clearly-defined morphology of liwat as sexual relations be tween male persons (Goh, 2012). Uproars over male homosexuality in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries came into prominence with two major events. First is the sodomy charges of the former Malaysian Deputy Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim and second is the festival celebrating the human rights of sexually-diverse persons, Seksualiti Merdeka. Raging debates on homosexuality in relation to Anwar (Kanaraju, 2007) and the banning of Seksualiti Merdeka in 2011 (Shazwan, 2011) caused innumerable forums on men`s masculinities population to mushroom among the Malaysian. Back in the year 1992, the Prime Minister, Dr. Mahathir Mohamad made the statement that democracy would lead to homosexuality (Offord, 1999). Dr Mahathir used the conflation of homosexuality with democracy to consolidate Malaysias cultural borders (and its postcolonial status), so that Malaysian people can maintain the pureness and uniqueness. Dr Mahathir is drawn on cultural specificity in this context to explain the indigenous from the foreign, and homosexuality is conceived of as alien and other. It is in this sense that Anwar Ibrahim is bothered by the use of the accusation that he is homosexual. Anwar has been notable for his liberal views about democracy and transparent government (The Asian Renaissance, 1996). To simply do away with opposition and perceived threats to his authoritarian rule, Dr. Mahathir can inscribe upon his enemy the descriptor of homosexual (Offord, 1999). Prior to the Asia-Pacific Economic Co-operation (APEC) leaders summit in Kuala Lumpur in late 1998, amid the controversial jailing of Anwar and civil unrest and demonstrations, the role of homosexuality as a political and cultural tool of difference was propounded strongly by the Malaysian Foreign Minister, Dr Abdullah Badawi. It was his contention that sodomy was a serious offence in Malaysia; it was against the countrys religious and social values (The Weekend Australian, 1998). Dr Badawi maintained that in certain places in Europe, and perhaps Australia and America, they do not treat it as something big but to Malaysia, it is bad consider as a scandal. Following Dr Mahathirs accusations against Anwar, a Peoples Anti-Homosexual Voluntary Movement was formed to combat the dangers of homosexuality. In one blow Dr Mahathir succeeded in undermining Anwars credibility and deployed homosexuality as the number one impossibility. Anwar, also a Muslim, entrenched the perceived, corrupting value of homosexuality by asserting in the Time interview that his character was assassinated by this descriptor (Offord, 1999). Therefore in Southeast Asia today, this is one sense of where homosexuality is located, something that is demonized, and deeply disturbed. It is conflated at once with democracy, corruption, and foreignness. It does seem clear that when the nation state perceives a threat to its existence, that danger is frequently translated into sexualized terms. Same sex sexuality is deployed as the alien other, linked to conspiracy, recruitment, opposition to the nation, and ultimately a threat to civilization (Offord, 1999). 2.8 Theory applies between relationship of Media and LGBT Community Media plays a very important role in human life, where people get more of information they need from it. Therefore, to be more understand the influence of media on youths perceptions and opinions about homosexuality, the study chooses to employ framing theory. The concept of framing has been variously attributed to sociologist Erving Goffman and anthropologist Gregory Bateson. Frames allow journalists or media in general cover and package issue. The choice of journalists who shelter a story can influence the way issues are framed. The theory describe that the message framer has the choice of what is to be emphasized in the message, as the view through a window is emphasized by where the carpenter frames, or places, the window. If the window had been placed, or framed, on a different wall, the view would be different (Botan Hazleton, 2006). According to Muthudotin (2010), this theory suggests how media influences the thinking of people. The model of framing is related to the agenda-setting tradition like media telling the youth what to think, but not what to think about. However, it is more focused and expands the research by focusing on the nature of the issues and then places it within a field of meaning which can easily effects the audiences. Framing is an important topic since it can have a great influence. If we look at dissimilar context in Malaysia, sexually explicit content on media will be associated with values and eastern culture which hold norms of decency and morality. Eastern society, which is very different from western society, has an unusual mindset of perceiving sexual content. Everything which is related to sexuality is perceived as taboo and people would refuse to discuss the matter openly. In addition, as a Muslim country, Malaysia struggles to bind the whole thing linked with sexually oriented content (Mariesta, 2012). According to The Star online (2011), Pahang and Malacca are the states that practicing Islamic laws in punish Muslims engaging in homosexuality. Once the state amends and g